Today is our topic of discussion – Terminal Punctuations

Terminal Punctuations

 

 

Terminal Punctuations

The period, full stop or point (.)
The period (known as a full stop in British English) is probably the simplest punctuation mark amongst all. It functions to stop the sentence with meaning. It is to put at the end of a sentence for a logical and complete thought that looks like appropriate.

Full stop sits at the end of a sentence when it is not a question but an explanation or statement.

Examples:

• Rome is the capital of Italy.
• I was born in Australia and now live in Indonesia.
• The Dalai Lama is the spiritual leader of the Tibetan people.

Indication to abbreviations

Many abbreviations require a period or full stop. Dr. Mr. Mrs, and Ms do not take a period in British English. But most of the abbreviations are formed with capital letters such as MA, CIA. BBA and some are formed as first letter of capitalization like Phd, B.Sc etc.

Examples:

• I will arrive between 6 a.m. to 7 a.m.
• We are coming on Fri., Jan. 4.

Period after a single word

Sometimes a single word can form a sentence. In this case, if you place a full stop after the word it may convey a complete meaning as a complete sentence. That particular single word can be understood as a complete meaning like greeting or command. As examples:

• “Goodbye.”
• “Stop.”
• “Don’t!”

Periods in numbers

In English numbers, periods are used to separate the whole number to decimal. A period used in a number is also called a “decimal point” and it is known as “point” until it refers to money.

 

 

Examples:

• $10.43 = ten dollars and 43 cents
• 14.17 fourteen point one seven

Question mark (?)

Using question mark while writing direct questions as follows:

• How are you?
• Where can I bargain for a good laptop?
• What did you think of this movie?

Do not use question marks while writing indirect questions as follows:

a) (i) The coach asked the quarterback to sit on the bench. (correct)

(ii) The coach asked the quarterback to sit on the bench? (incorrect)

b) (i) I asked my brother if I could borrow fifty dollar. (correct)

(ii) I asked my brother if I could borrow fifty dollar? (incorrect)

Use question marks while writing rhetorical questions, even though no answers are expected. ?

• How will the World Series turn out, after all is said and done
• Who is really to blame for the world’s problems?

While writing a question that concludes with an abbreviation, ends with a period as an usual and then add a question mark. Do not put a space between the period and the question mark.

• Weren’t we supposed to head toward Washington, D.C.?

Exclamation mark (!)

Using exclamation mark to the end as an expression of strong feelings.

 

 

Examples:

• Wow! Sakib is splendid!
• Do not you dare to say that!
• Damn! What a mess!
• We won!
• We lost!

 

Today is our topic of discussion – The Common Punctuation

The Common Punctuation

 

 

The Common Punctuation

Punctuation is one of the most important aspects of written English, and yet it is one that is taken most lightly. It is, in fact, this feature of writing that gives meaning to the written words… much like pauses and changes in tones of the voice when speaking.

An error in punctuation can convey a completely different meaning to the one that is intended. It’s very important, and a tiny, misplaced comma or question mark can cost millions of dollars or break someone’s heart.

For example:

Your book, John.

Your book, John?

Although the words are same here, the two sentences mean completely different things because of the period (or full stop) and the question mark.

The same goes here:

Don’t stop.

Don’t, stop.

The commas after the don’t and the don’t, have made fully different in the meanings of the sentences. In the first sentence one is saying someone not to stop while in the second sentence he is saying someone not to go. So the meaning is different.

Another example of how punctuation can change the meaning of a sentence:

He was bitten by a dog which hurt him.

He was bitten by a dog, which hurt him.

The first sentence means the dog hurt him. The second sentence means the bite hurts him. The comma after the dog has completely changed the meaning of the second sentence.

A classic example which is generally given during teaching punctuations as the best can be this – A woman without her man is nothing.

 

 

Now see the differences that punctuation can make given below:

A woman, without her man, is nothing.

A woman: without her, man is nothing.

So, we can easily notify how meanings can be different or opposite just because of wrong of comma.
placements

This is very important to know how punctuation marks work for the meanings of the sentences. It is to be surely known when and how to use them in order to produce a good piece of writing: more importantly, conveying the correct messages.

 

 

Have a look at these given examples if there are any misplacements of punctuations. If you do not understand the importance of appropriate placement of punctuations then you will surely understand its function after seeing these.

 

Today is our topic of discussion – Definition and Kinds

Definition and Kinds

 

 

Definition and Kinds

Punctuation-marks, such as full stop, comma, and brackets, are used in writing to separate sentences and their elements and to clarify meaning. Punctuation is used to create sense, clarity and stress in sentences. You use punctuation-marks to structure and organize your writing. There are a number of punctuation-marks that are commonly used in English grammar.

The punctuation-marks are as follow:

• Periods
• Commas
• Semicolons
• Colons
• Question Marks
• Exclamation Points
• Quotation Marks
• Parentheses and Brackets
• Apostrophes
• Hyphens
• Dashes
• Ellipses
• Slashes

 

The correct usage of the punctuation-marks will make your writing easier to read and more appealing.

British vs. American English

There are a few differences between punctuations in British English and American English. The following chart is showing in details some of those differences:

 

 

 

Today is our topic of discussion – Definition of Participle

Definition of Participle

 

 

Definition of Participle

A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed. The term verbal indicates that a participle, like the other two kinds of verbals, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being. However, since they function as adjectives participles modify nouns or pronouns.

There are two types of participles: present participles and past participles. Present participles end in -ing. Past participles end in -ed, -en, -d. -t. -n, or -ne as in the words asked, eaten, saved, dealt. seen, and gone. As-

He is a learned man.

The learned man is my teacher.

The pizza is burning.

The burning pizza is still on the oven.

I washed my clothes.

The washed clothes are in the luggage.

In the above mentioned pair of sentences have the same words. learned, burning and washed. In the first sentences of the pairs, the words are working as a verb and in the next sentences those “verb forms of the words” are working as an adjective. These are called participles.

Participle phrases

A participial phrase is a group of words consisting of a participle and the modifier(s) and/or (pronoun(s) or noun phrase that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the participle. As-

Removing his coat, Antora rushed to the river.

• The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying Antora.

Removing – is a participle

his coat – is a direct object of action expressed in participle

As-Apon noticed her cousin walking alone in the road.

• The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying cousin.

walking – is a participle

alone in the road – is a prepositional phrase as adverb

As – Children interested in music early develop strong intellectual skills.

• The participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying children.

interested (in) is a participle music – is a direct object of action expressed in participle early – is an adverb

As-Having been a gymnast, Jessy knew the importance of exercise.

• The participial phrase functions as an adjective-modifying Jessy.

 

 

Having been – is a participle a gymnast – is a subject complement for Jessy, via state of being expressed in participle
Placement: In order to prevent confusion, a participial phrase must be placed as close to noun it modifies as possible, and the noun must be clearly stated.

Carrying a heavy pile of books, his foot caught on a step.

Carrying a heavy pile of books, he caught his foot on a step.

In the first sentence, there is no clear indication of who or what is performing the action expressed in the participle carrying. Certainly foot can’t be logically understood to function in this way. This situation is an example of a dangling modifier error since the modifier (the participial phrase) is not modifying any specific noun in the sentence and is thus left “dangling”.

Since a person must be doing the carrying for the sentence to make sense, a noun or pronoun that refers to a person must be in the place immediately after the participial phrase, as in the second sentence.

Punctuation: When a participial phrase begins a sentence, a comma should be placed after the phrase.

Arriving at the store, I found that it was closed. Washing and polishing the car, Ronok developed sore muscles.

If the participle or participial phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, it should be set off with commas only if the information is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. As –

Jebin, watching an old movie, drifted in and out of sleep.

The church, destroyed by a fire, was never rebuilt.

Note that if the participial phrase is essential to the meaning of the sentence, no commas should be used. As –

The student earning the highest grade point average will receive a special award.

The guy wearing the chicken costume is my cousin.

 

 

If a participial phrase comes at the end of a sentence, a comma usually precedes the phrase if it modifies an earlier word in the sentence but not if the phrase directly follows the word it modifies. As-

The local residents often saw Pranto wandering through the streets. (The phrase modifies Pranto, not residents.)

Rimi nervously watched the woman, alarmed by her silence. (The phrase modifies Rimi, not woman.)

 

 

Today is our topic of discussion – Definition of Infinitive

Definition of Infinitive

Definition of Infinitive

An infinitive is a verbal consisting of the word to and a regular form of verb and working as a noun, adjective, or adverb. The term “verbal” indicates an infinitive, like the other two kinds of verbals are based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being.

However, the infinitive may function as a subject, direct object, subject complement, adjective, or adverb in a sentence.

To cook is an essential skill. (subject)

We like to eat fruits. (direct object)

My goal is to learn English. (subject complement)

You need the highest number of votes to win. (adjective)

I raised my hand to speak. (adverb)

Be sure not to confuse an infinitive – a verbal consisting of “to and a verb” with a prepositional phrase beginning with to, which consists of “to and a noun or pronoun” and any modifiers.

Infinitives: to eat, to go, to draw, to become, to enter, to stand, to catch, to belong etc.

Prepositional phrases: to him, to the Chairman, to my house, to the mountains, to us, to this address etc.

Infinitive phrases

An infinitive phrase is a group of words consisting of an infinitive and the modifier(s) and/or (pro)noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the actor(s), direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the infinitive. As-

We intended to leave early.

• The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb intended.

to leave – is an infinitive

early – is an adverb

As-I have an assignment to complete before lunch.

• The infinitive phrase functions as an adjective modifying paper. to complete is an infinitive
  before lunch – is a prepositional phrase as adverb
  As-Rajib agreed to give me a ride.
• The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb agreed.

to give – is an infinitive

me – is an indirect object of action expressed in infinitive

a ride – is a direct object of action expressed in infinitive

As-They asked me to bring some food.

• The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb asked.

me – is an actor or “subject” of infinitive phrase

to bring – is an infinitive some food – is a direct object of action expressed in infinitive

As – Everyone wanted Shomrat to be the captain of the team.

• The infinitive phrase functions as the direct object of the verb wanted.

Shomrat – is an actor or “subject” of infinitive phrase

to be – is an infinitive

the captain – is a subject complement for Shomrat, via state of being expressed in infinitive

of the team – is a prepositional phrase as adjective

 

 

Actors: In these last two examples, the actor of the infinitive phrase could be roughly characterized as the “subject” of the action or state expressed in the infinitive. It is somewhat misleading to use the word subject, however, since an infinitive phrase is not a full clause with a subject and a finite verb.

Also notice that when it is a pronoun, the actor appears in the objective case (me, not I, in the fourth example). Certain verbs, when they take an infinitive direct object, require an actor for the infinitive phrase; others can’t have an actor. Still other verbs can go either way, as the charts below illustrate.

Verbs that take infinitive objects without actors:

 

 

Examples:

Most students plan to study.

We began to learn.

They offered to pay.

They neglected to pay.

She promised to return.

In all of these examples no actor can come between the bold main (finite) verb and the infinitive direct-object phrase.

Verbs that take infinitive objects with actors:

 

 

Examples:

Mom reminded me to buy milk.

Their parents advise them to study.

The lawyer forced the defendant to admit the truth.

She has convinced the director of the program to change her position.

I invite you to consider the evidence.

In all of these examples an actor is required after the bold main (finite) verb and before the infinitive direct-object phrase.

Verbs that use either pattern:

 

 

Examples:

I asked to see the records.

I asked him to show me the records.

Shohag expected his group to win.

Shohag expected to win.

Zahid likes his friend to drive fast.

In all of these examples the italicized main verb can take an infinitive object with or without an actor.

Punctuation: If the infinitive is used as an adverb and is the beginning phrase in a sentence, it should be set off with a comma; otherwise, no punctuation is needed for an infinitive phrase.

To buy a basket of flowers, Asif had to spend his last dollar. To improve your writing, you must consider your purpose and audience.

Split infinitives

Split infinitives take places when additional words are included between “to” and the verb in an infinitive. Many readers find a single adverb splitting the infinitive to be acceptable, but this practice should be avoided in formal writing.

Examples:

I like to on a nice day walk in the woods. * (unacceptable)

On a nice day, I like to walk in the woods. (revised)

I needed to quickly gather my personal possessions. (acceptable in informal contexts)

I needed to gather my personal possessions quickly. (revised for formal contexts)

 

Today is our topic of discussion – Definition of Gerund

Definition of Gerund

 

 

Definition of Gerund

A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and works as a noun. So, basically gerund looks like a verb but used as a noun (it expresses a work’s name or state a being) in a sentence.

I am walking to home.

I like walking back to home from my school.

Walking is a good exercise.

In these three sentences, a particular word walking has been used in different ways. In the first sentence walking is a verb. In the second and third sentences walking is function as a noun. Here, walking is a gerund.

However, since a gerund works as a noun, it occupies some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would be, for example a gerund works as a subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition.

Gerund as subject:

Walking is a good exercise. (Walking is the gerund.)

To walk is a good exercise. (The gerund has been removed.)

Gerund as direct object:

I like going to French classes. (The gerund is going.)

I like to go to French classes. (The gerund has been removed)

Gerund as subject complement:

My cat’s favorite activity is eating fish. (The gerund is eating.)

My car’s favorite food is fish. (The gerund has been removed.)

Gerund as object of preposition:

We discussed about going for a vacation. (The gerund is going.)

We discussed about a vacation we want to go. (The gerund has been removed.)

 

 

Gerund phrases

A gerund phrase is a group of words consisting of a gerund and the modifier(s) and/or noun(s) or noun phrase(s) that function as the direct object(s), indirect object(s), or complement(s) of the action or state expressed in the gerund. As –

• The gerund phrase works as the subject of the sentence:

Finding a needle in a haystack would be easier than what we’re trying to do.

Finding – is a gerund

a needle- is a direct object of action expressed in gerund

in a haystack – is a prepositional phrase as adverb

• The gerund phrase works as the direct object of the verb appreciate. As –

I hope that you appreciate my offering you this opportunity.

My – is a possessive pronoun adjective form, modifying the gerund offering is a gerund

you – is an indirect object of action expressed in gerund this opportunity – is a direct object of action expressed in gerund

• The gerund phrase works as the subject complement. As –

Fuad’s favorite tactic has been jabbering away to his constituents.

jabbering away to – is a gerund his constituents – is a direct object of action expressed in gerund

• The gerund phrase functions as the object of the preposition for. As- You might get in trouble for faking an illness to avoid work.

faking is a gerund

an illness – is an indirect object of action expressed in gerund to avoid work – is an infinitive phrase as adverb

The gerund phrase functions as the subject of the sentence. As – Being the boss made Jeff feel uneasy.

 

 

Being – is a gerund

the boss – is a subject complement for Jeff, via state of being expressed in gerund

 

Today is our topic of discussion – No Article and Exceptions

No Article and Exceptions

No Article and Exceptions

• Proper nouns

No Article is used before proper nouns. So no article is used before —

i) names of people

ii) names of continents/countries

iii)names of states/cities/towns

iv) names of days/months/festivals

v) names of subjects of study

For example:

We live in Dhaka / Bangladesh.

We are learning English.

He is a student of law/science.

Note:

family relations

These are normally treated like proper nouns, so no article is used before father, daddy, dad, mother, mum, mummy, uncle, aunt.
Example: Father/Daddy is at home. (not the father/daddy)

names of seasons

Though names of seasons can be used with or without “the”, it is more common to drop the article.

Example: Spring is in the air.

• Uncountable nouns

No article is used before uncountable nouns (material and abstract nouns).

Example:

He sells milk.

She lacks confidence.

• Names of games/sports

No article is used before the names of games/sports:

Example:

We play cricket/tennis/football. (not, a cricket)

• Public institutions

No article is used before public institution like these: church, court, hospital, market, temple, prison, school, college, university

Example:

We go to church on Sundays. (not the church) My child does not like to go to school. (not the school) Old people must go to hospital for regular check-ups. (not the hospital)

Note:

But a noun like this takes ‘the’ when it refers to its building:

Example:

I went to the mosque to admire its architecture.

• Names of important public buildings and institutions (for example, airports, stations, Universities) are often two words:

Manchester Airport

Victoria station (not the…)

Buckingham Palace

Harvard University

Canterbury Cathedral

Edinburgh Castle

Cambridge University

• We do not use ‘the’ names of people (“Helen’, ‘Helen Taylor’ etc.). In the same way, we do not normally use ‘the’ with names of places:

For example:

Continents

Africa, Europe, South America

Countries

France, Japan, Switzerland, Texas

Islands

Bermuda, Tasmania

Cities

Cairo, New York, Bangkok

Mountains

Everest, Etna, Kilimanjaro

Compare:

 

 

With most other places, you need ‘the’.

For example:

the cinema, the bank.

• Compare:

In general (without the)

• Children learn from playing. (children in general)
• I couldn’t live without music.
• All cars have wheels.
• Sugar isn’t very good for you
• English people drink a lot of tea. (English people in general)
• I like working with people. (people in general)
• Do you like coffee? (coffee in general)

Specific people or things (with the)

• We took the children to the zoo. (a specific group. perhaps the speaker’s children)
• The film wasn’t very good, but I liked the music. (the music in the film)
• All the cars in this car park belong to people who work here.
• Can you pass the sugar, please? (the sugar on the table)
• The English people I know drink a lot of tea. (only the English people I know, not English people in general.)
• I like the people I work with. (a specific group of people)
• Did you like the coffee we had after dinner last night? (specific coffee)

 

• Nouns as object complements

No article is used before a noun acting as a complement to the direct object:

 

 

Example:

They crowned him king. (not, a king)

The article is omitted when the object complement (king) indicates a unique status of the direct object (him).

They appointed him professor. (not a professor)

We elected him chairman. (not a chairman)

(N.B: “complement’ is a word or phrase added to a verb to complete the predicate in a sentence.)

• Names of meals/articles of food

No article is used before names of meals/articles of food:

Example: 

I have breakfast at 8′ clock. (Not, a breakfast)

I usually have lunch at 2 p.m. (not, a lunch) I had just finished dinner when the call came.

There is brinjal on the menu today. (not, the brinjal)

Note:

When the name of a meal or article of food is modified by an adjective phrase or relative clause, an article must be used to make it specific.

Example:

I had a good breakfast this morning.

There is a dinner tonight in honour of the new director.

The bread/fish you are eating is not fresh.

Repetition of articles

When two or more nouns joined by and refer to the same person or thing, an article is used before the first noun only:

He is a great poet and thinker. (not, a thinker)

The District Magistrate and Collector is on tour (not, the Collector).

But when they refer to different/separate people or things, an article is used before each of them:

Both the boy and the girl have done well in their examinations.
The Prime Minister and the Education Minister are reaching tomorrow.

Note:

When two or more adjectives modify the same noun, an article is used before the first adjective only.

I have a red and blue pencil.  (only one pencil that is partly red and partly blue)

 

 

But when adjectives modify different nouns, an article is used before each of them:

I have a red and a blue pencil. (two pencils-one is red and the other blue)

 

 

Today is our topic of discussion – Definite Article

Definite Article

 

 

Definite Article

*The’ is a definite article. It refers to something and somebody particularly.

Usage

Referring Back:

‘The’ is used before a definite noun. When a noun is mentioned again, that is, when it refers back to a noun mentioned already, it takes ‘the’.

Example:

This is an old palace. People believe that the palace was built 500 years ago.

ii) Representing Class:

“The”, like a/an, is used before a singular countable noun mentioned for the first time when it represents a class, that is, when ‘the’ means ‘all/every’.

For example:

The camel is the ship of the desert. The lion is a wild animal

‘the’ is used before adjectives or participles to represent a class of people: the rich, the poor, the dead, the dying, the injured/wounded

For example:

The rich are no necessarily happy. The blind deserve our sympathy.

iv) ‘the’ is used before an adjective to denote a quality:

For example:

the white/yellow of an egg the evil, the good, the beautiful

‘The used before a noun considered unique or extraordinary, that is, a noun treated as equivalent to a superlative adjective. In this construction ‘the’ means ‘the best, the only, or precisely’, so it has a heightening effect on the noun it modifies:

For example:

She is the bride for him.

This is the place for our picnic.

He is the authority on the subject.

‘The’ is used before a noun whose identity is common knowledge or can be easily inferred. In this construction ‘the’ denotes a person’s title, rank, or profession etc:

For example:

• The President
• the King/Queen
• The Principal
• the bench/bar
• The Prophet
• the press/media
• The Postman
• The Prime Minister

‘The’ is used before a singular common noun (place/person) that can be easily inferred from the situation:

For example:

the police station, the post office, the station, the radio

1. Would you close the gate, please?

2. She is listening to the radio.

3. He will be on the air tonight.

4. Turn on/off the tap, please.

Note:

a) radio always takes ‘the’:

She is listening to the radio.

What’s on the radio now?

b) ‘The use of the before television is optional:

What’s on the television now?

What’s on television now?

But the is not used in the expression ‘watch TV’: They are watching TV. (not, the TV)

‘The’ is used before common nouns denoting musical instruments:

For example:

She is playing the violin/piano/sitar.

He is playing the drum/tabla.

He is accompanied on the violin by an Englishman.

‘The’ is used before a noun denoting a unit of measure to mean ‘every’:

For example:

We buy petrol by the gallon/litre.

They are paid wages by the hour/week.

 

 

‘The’ is used before both countable and uncountable nouns (singular or plural) that are made definite by:

a) preposition/preposition phrase the boy with long hair the woman in black the milk in the bottle the boys/girls/teachers of this school

b) a relative clause the book/pen/milk/sugar/she bought yesterday the water/tea/coffee he drinks every day the birds/animals that live in a forest

‘The’ is used before names of gulfs, canals, seas, and oceans:

• the Atlantic (ocean)
• the Pacific (ocean)
• the Indian (ocean)
• the Mediterranean Sea
• the Red Sea
• the Persian Gulf
• the Gulf of Mexico
• the Panama Canal
• the Suez Canal

“The’ is used before names of rivers/channels:

• the Padma
• the Thames
• the Brahmaputra
• the Avon
• the Danube
• the Euphrates
• the Ganga
• the Amazon
• the Rhine
• the English Channel
• the Tyne
• the Mississippi
• the Nile

‘The’ is used before the name of these republics/kingdom/countries/states:

• the Netherlands
• the Sudan
• the Czech Republic
• the Congo
• the UK
• the USA
• the Philippines
• the GDR
• the Netherlands

Compare:

Have you been to Canada or the United States?

Note:

a) The is not used after noun +’s:

I haven’t yet read today’s Statesman. (not, the today’s Statesman)

b) Names of magazines/periodicals are now usually used without ‘the’:

Punch, Outlook, Time Sunday, Today, Vogue

‘The’ is used before these nouns:

cathedral, cinema, pictures, theatre, office, station, museum, zoo

Example:

• I am going to the pictures.
• She is going to the cinema/theatre.
• They are going to the zoo.
• He is in the office now.
• (not, She is going to station/museum.)

‘The’ is used before the parts of one’s body and articles of clothing:

The stone hit him on the shoulder.

The trouser you bought fits you well.

I held him by the tie/collar.

More Uses

the sky, the sea, the ground, the country, the environment :

We looked up at all the stars in the sky. (not in sky) Would you like to live country? (not in a town) We must do more to protect the environment. (the natural world around us) But we say space (without the) when we mean ‘space in the universe’.

Compare:

There are millions of stars in space. (not in the space) I tried to park my car, but the space was too small.

We use ‘the’ before ‘same’ (the same):

Your pullover is the same colour as mine. (not ‘is same colour’) “Are these keys the same?” “No, they’re different.”

(go to) the cinema, the theatre:

I go to cinema a lot, but I haven’t been to the theatre for ages. When we say the cinema / the theatre, we do not necessarily mean a specific cinema or theatre.

The + nationality You can use the + nationality adjectives that end in ‘-ch’ or ‘-sh (the French / the English / the Spanish etc.) the meaning is ‘the people of that country”:

The French are famous for their food. (the people of French) The French/the English etc. are plural in meaning. We do not say

We often leave out noun:

The Sheraton (Hotel) the Palace (Theatre) the Guggenheim (museum)

Some names are only ‘the + noun’, for example:

The Acropolis, the Kremlin, the Pentagon

i) Name with ‘of usually have “the”:

For example:

The Bank of England The Museum of Modern Art

The Great Wall of China The Tower of London.

Note:

We say:

The University of Cambridge common noun but Cambridge University (without the)

Many organization have names with ‘the”:

the European Union, the BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation), the Red Cross

 

 

 

Today is our topic of discussion – Indefinite Article

Indefinite Article

Indefinite Article

‘A’ and ‘an’ are indefinite articles as they generalize the noun rather than specifying it. Nouns which are uncountable do not take indefinite articles. Only countable nouns take indefinite articles.
*An’ is used before vowel sounds. ‘A’ is used before consonant sounds.

The following nouns are uncountable:

 

 

Compare these countable and uncountable nouns:

Countable

• I’m looking for a job.
• What a beautiful view!
• It’s a nice day today.
• We had a lot of bags and cases.
• These chairs are mine:
• That’s a good suggestion.

Uncountable

• I’m looking for work. (not a work)
• What beautiful scenery!
• It’s nice weather today.
• We had lot of baggage/luggage.
• This furniture is mine.
• That’s good advice.

 

 

When two nouns are together like the following, sometimes we write them as one word and sometimes as two separate words.

For example:

a headache, a toothpaste, a weekend, a car park, a road sign

Note the difference between:

A sugar bowl (perhaps empty) and a bowl of sugar (= a bowl with sugar in it)

A shopping bag (perhaps empty) and a bag of shopping (= a bag full of shopping)

When we use noun + noun, the first noun is like an adjective. It is normally singular, but the meaning is often plural.

For example:

a bookshop is a shop where you can buy books, an apple tree that has apples.

In the same way we say:

A three-hour journey (=a journey that takes three hours)

A ten-pound note (not pounds)

A four-week course (not weeks)

Two 14-year-old girls (not years)

A six-page letter (not pages)

Position of the indefinite article

i) alan is an article. So it belongs to the class of determiners. As a determiner, its position is before the adjective.

Example:

A good book

An intelligent girl

ii) alan is placed after predetermines like many/much/rather/quite/what:

1.What a man he is! (not, a what man)

2. Many a man was injured. (not, a many man)

3. He gave such a talk that everybody fell asleep. (not, a such talk)

4. She is quite a beauty. (not, a quite beauty)

iii) alan is placed after adjectives. They are personified by as/so/too/how/quite:

5. How fine a place it is!

6. It is too absurd as an answer.

Usage on the basis of sound

The choice between a/an is determined by the initial sound of the word following it. If the word begins with a consonant sound, use ‘a’; if the word begins with a vowel sound, use ‘an’.
i) a+consonant sound

‘a’ is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound.

Example:

A book, a cat, a dog, a fan, a university, a European

Note:
a) Words beginning with ‘u/eu’ have an initial ‘y’ sound, so they take ‘a’.

For example:

a unit, a utensil, a union, a utopia, a eunuch, a ewe, a eulogy, a euphemism

b) ‘o’ pronounced like ‘w’ is a consonant sound and takes ‘a’.

For example:

a one-eyed man, a one-act play

ii) an + vowel sound

‘an’ is used before a word beginning with a vowel sound.

For example:

An apple, an egg, an inkpot, an hour, an honor, an heir
Words beginning with a mute ‘h’ take ‘an’, not ‘a’:

For example:

Heir, honest, honor, hour, honorary, honorarium

1. He is an honest man.

2. We had an hour’s rest.

3. It is an honor to me.

Note:

4. This is an honorary post.

a+ hotel, historical, habitual, humble

1. That is a hotel.

2. This is a historical novel.

3. He is a habitual drunkard.

4. This is a humble beginning.

iv) an+acronyms/abbreviations

an is used before acronyms/abbreviations beginning with f, h, l, m, n, r, s, x because each of these consonants has an initial vowel sound e/a:

f(ef), h (eich), I (el), m (em), n (en), r (aar), s (es), x (eks)

For example:

1. He is an FBI agent.

2. This is an HMT watch.

3. He is an LLB.

4. He is an MP.

5. He is an NCC officer.

6. He has sent SOS.

7. This in an X-ray telescope.

Note:

a) MS is an abbreviation for manuscript. The abbreviated form is usually pronounced manuscript, not ’em-es’, so it takes a.

For example:

This is an MS (em-es) of my new book. This is a MS (manuscript) of my new book. Not an

b) Xmas is an abbreviation for Christmas but it is usually pronounced as ‘Christmas’, not ‘Ex-mas’, so it takes a. it pronounced ex-mas’, the article should be an:

For example:

a Xmas (Christmas) card. (not, an) This is an Xmas (Ex-mas) card.

v) a/an + adverb/adjective + noun

The choice of alan does not always depend on the initial sound of what follows it immediately. It can be an adjective or adverb placed before the noun:

For example:

An honest man, an extremely difficult problem, a great artist, a very arousing story

vi) an + number

‘an’ is used before a number beginning with a vowel sound.

For example:

This is an 18-player team.

He is an 80-year old man.

But: This is a 5-year old child.

 

 

Usage on the basis of structure

i) alan + singular countable

a/an is used before a singular countable noun that is mentioned for the first time and does not refer to a particular person or a thing:

1. What’s this? This is a bus.

2. What’s that? That is an orange. (the is not possible here)

Note:

a) A singular indefinite countable noun cannot be used without ‘a/an’.

We don’t say: This is pen. That is elephant.

b) uncountable without ‘a/an’

An uncountable singular noun does not take ‘a/an”:

This is water/sugar. (not, a water/sugar)

This is ink/oil (not, an ink/oil)

ii) alan + noun (as a class)
‘a/an’ is used before a singular countable noun when it represents a class, when one means all/every.

For example:

A triangle has got three sides. (all triangles)

A horse is animal. (all horses)

iii) alan + noun (profession etc)

‘a/an’ is used before a singular noun denoting profession, occupation, post, rank, caste, community, religion, nationality or political loyalty.

For example:

1. He is a teacher.

2. She is a Christian.

3. He is a German.

4. She is a socialist.

iv) alan+noun (degree/title)

‘a/an’ is used before a noun denoting a degree/title.

For example:

He is a graduate.

She is an M.Sc. (not, She is B.A. or He is Ph.D.)

alan + noun (rate)

‘a/an’ is used before a noun expressing the rate.

For example:

Fish sells at fifty taka a kilo.

She can type forty words a minute.

Bananas sell at ten taka a dozen.

He goes home once a week.

vi) alan + verb-noun (verb used as a noun), alan is used before a verb used as a noun:

1. He has gone for a walk.

2. Have a look at this book.

3. He gave a talk on grammar.

4. I have a bath at 9 o’clock.

5. This razor gives me a good shave.

We don’t say:

She is going for swim/ride now.

He took her out for drive.

vii) An uncountable noun takes ‘alan’ when it is treated as a countable noun, that is used in a particular sense.

For example:

It is a cold day. (Countable)

It is cold in the winters. (Uncountable)

Drink a glass of milk at night. (Countable)

The milk is warm. (Uncountable)

 

 

 

Today is our topic of discussion – Common errors

Common errors

 

Common errors

Except the previously mentioned issues, there are some other kinds of common mistakes students do while making English sentences. Some notes are given below to avoid the mistakes:

1. If ‘either’ and ‘neither’ mean ‘one of many, then ‘anyone’ takes place instead of ‘either’ and ‘no one’ takes place Instead of ‘neither’. As-

Inc. Either of the three boys will do.

Cor: Anyone of the three boys will do.

Inc: Neither of the three things will do.

Cor: None of the three things will do.

2. Some Latin comparative degree do not need ‘more’ before them. They need a ‘to’, not a ‘than” after them. As – junior senior, inferior, superior, etc.

Inc. He is superior than Rahim.

Cor: He is superior to Rahim.

Inc. Alam is junior than him.

Cor: Alam is junior to him.

Inc. Bread is inferior than rice.

Cor: Bread is inferior to rice.

3. If a sentence is made with a Complement, ‘as’ doesn’t take place before it. As –

Inc: Karim was appointed as Headmaster.

Cor: Karim was appointed Headmaster.

Inc: They elected Kader as their captain.

Cor: They elected Kader their captain.

4. When ‘know’ verb has an infinitive object, then a ‘how’ takes place before the infinitive. As –

Inc: I know to swim.

Cor: I know how to swim.

Cor: I know swimming.

Inc: He knows to write.

Cor: He knows how to write.

Cor: He knows writing.

5. If a particular time has been mentioned in Present perfect tense, then it becomes Past perfect tense instead of present perfect tense. As –

Inc: The man has died at 2. p.m.

Cor: The man died at 2. p.m.

Inc: He has come here yesterday.

Cor: He came here yesterday.

6. ‘Other’ takes place instead of a person, not a place or stuff. As-

Inc: We will buy paper, shirt, pen, shoe and others.

Cor: We will buy paper, shirt, pen, shoe and other things.

7. When a particular type of many things are compared, ‘all other’ or ‘any other’ takes place after ‘than’. As-

Inc: Kalidas was greater than all poets.

Cor: Kalidas was greater than all other poets.

8. When ‘full’ is added with a word, then the last ‘T’ should be omitted. As –

Inc: The cow is a usefull animal.

Cor: The cow is a useful animal.

9. According to the rules of English Sentence, one sentence cannot have double negatives. Besides, these adverbs express negative meaning by themselves – never, nobody, hardly. scarcely, no more, nothing, until, unless, nor, neither, seldom. So, they do not need to be made negative. As-

Inc: Don’t never make a noise in the class.

Cor: Never make a noise in the class.

Inc: I did not see nobody in the field.

Cor: I saw nobody in the field.

10. When a sentence has a ‘minute’ mentioned, then “O’ clock” does not need to take place. “O’ clock” takes place when there is no particular minute mentioned. As –

Inc: I shall start by the 6-30 O’clock train.

Cor: I shall start by the 6-30 train.

Inc: I shall start by the 5 train.

Cor: I shall start by the 5 O’clock train.

11. If two subjects are added with a ‘with, the verb is used according to the first subject. As-

Inc: The president with all his advisers were present in the meeting.

Cor: The president with all his advisers was present in the meeting.

12. When more than one nouns or pronouns are added with an ‘and’ the verb takes the singular form. As-

Inc: Slow and steady win the race.

Cor: Slow and steady wins the race.

13. The ‘verb’ of a sentence takes the number and person according to the subject or noun or pronoun. As –

Inc: A large number of boys was present in the class.

Cor: A large number of boys were present in the class.

14. When there is only one subject it needs positive degree, when there are two subjects they need comparative degree and when there are more than two persons they need superlative degree. As-

Inc: He is a better student.

Cor: He is a good student.

Inc: Sumon is good than his brother.

Cor: Sumon is better than his brother.

Inc: He is better boy in this class.

Cor: He is the best boy in this class.

15. When it comes to Comparative Degree the later noun takes an ‘s’ to mean the previous noun. If the noun is not mentioned earlier then it will not take an ‘s’. As –

Inc: His report is better than your.

Cor: His report is better than yours.

16. Usually ‘older’ is used to indicate people who are not siblings and ‘elder’ is used to indicate siblings. Superlative degree ‘eldest’ is used to indicate the eldest among the siblings. ‘Younger’ is used to indicate the lesser aged person among the siblings and ‘youngest’ is used to indicate the least aged sibling. As –

Inc: He is our younger brother.

Cor: He is the youngest brother of us.

17. While using ‘in’ and ‘after’, it should be kept In the mind that ‘in’ must be used in ‘future tense’ and ‘after’ must be used in ‘past tense’. As-

Inc: They will answer after a month.

Cor: They will answer in a month.

18. Same kinds of ‘clause, parts of speech or phrase’ are used to indicate connected conjunction or corelative conjunction. As –

Inc: He is as famous like Browning.

Cor: He is as famous as Browning.

19. When it is about ‘very’ and ‘much’, it should be kept in the mind that ‘very’ takes place before ‘present participle’ and much takes place before ‘past participle’. As —

Inc: The story is much interesting.

Cor: The story is very interesting.

20. Past tense always takes place after fancy, wish, as though, as if, high time’. As –

Inc: I fancy that the tempest stops soon.

Cor: I fancy that the tempest would stop soon.

21. If a ‘noun’ is qualified with aeach’ or ‘every’ then the verb takes singular number. As –

Inc: Every gentleman and every lady are given prize.

Cor: Every gentleman and every lady is given a prize.

22. There are some differences in the usage of ‘same’ and ‘such’. After ‘same’ ‘as’ and sometimes ‘that’ take place. However, after “such’ alwayss ‘as’ takes place. As-

Inc: You lost the same book which I lost.

Cor: You lost the same book as I lost.

23. The adjective’ or ‘participle’ used in a sentence should not be kept different or unrelated. As —

Inc: Though much depressed, there is still hope for her.

Cor: Though she is much depressed, there is still hope for her.

24. Some verbs like see, feel, mind, love, hate, like, hope, resemble, cost, forget, consist, suffice, sound, sum, believe, smell, wish, know. prefer, doubt, possess, imagine, taste, fear, please, astonish, understand, belong etc never take an ‘ing’ form. As-

Inc: I am seeing a bird.

Cor: I see a bird.

25. ‘Fewer’ is used to indicate numbers in comparative and ‘less’ is used to indicate quantity. As-

Inc: No less than four eggs were broken.

Cor: No fewer than four eggs were broken

 

 

 

Some examples have been given below

Inc: She loves flowers.

Cor: She likes flowers.

Inc: She prides on her beauty.

Cor: She prides herself on her beauty.

Inc: The standard of their life is very high.

Cor: The standard of their living is very high.

Inc: She is neither seen to act or sing.

Cor: She is neither seen to act nor heard to sing.

Inc: She has given birth to a child.

Cor: She has begot a child.

Inc: Completing my work, I went out,

Cor: Having completed my work, I went out.

Inc: She is one of those who is not able to say no.

Cor: She cannot refuse.

Inc: One of our family members is invited there.

Cor: One of the members of our family is invited there..

Inc My son is ill this week.

Cor: My son has been ill all this week.

Inc: She will combat with my view.

Cor: She will oppose my view.

Inc: She is comparatively better today.

Cor: She is better today.

Inc: He will come just now.

Cor: He has come just now.

Inc: I have read a poetry.

Cor: I have read a piece of poetry.

Inc: Kamal is deaf of hearing.

Cor: Kamal is short of hearing or hard of hearing.

Inc: Bread and butter are my breakfast.

Cor: Bread and butter is my breakfast.

Inc: He takes his meal there.

Cor: He takes his meals there.

Inc: Don’t loose your heart.

Cor: Don’t loose heart.

Inc: He is selected as chairman.

Cor: He is selected chairman.

Inc: Shortly this is what happened.

Cor: In short this is what happened.

Inc: Describe the incident in short.

Cor: Describe the incident in brief.

Inc: He is too strong to do this.

Cor: He is strong enough to do this.

Inc: I feel somewhat well.

Cor: I am pretty well.

Inc: Karim is somewhat tall for this age.

Cor: Karim is rather tall for this age.

Inc: You are hearing the sound.

Cor: You hear the sound.

Inc: He is waiting for a week.

Cor: He has been waiting for a week.

Inc: The party is comprised of ten man.

Cor: The party comprises ten man.

Inc: It is a true fact.

Cor: It is a fact.

Inc: So far I know he is an innocent.

Cor: So far as I know he is innocent.

Inc: The food was very tasteful.

Cor: The food was very tasty.

Inc: What name shall I call you?

Cor: By what name shall I call you?

Inc: None of us are perfect.

Cor: None of us is perfect.

Inc: Our teacher will not take the class today.

Cor: Our teacher will not hold the class today.

Inc: Airport is busy place.

Cor: Airport is a busy place.

Inc: Taking our seats, the game started.

Cor: While we were taking our seats, the game started.

Inc: When four years old, Paul’s father died.

Cor: While four years old. Paul’s father died.

Inc: Each of the actors made their entrance on time.

Cor: Each of the actors made his entrance in time.

Inc: Sitting on the top of the pyramid, the camels look very tiny.

Cor: While I was sitting on the top of the pyramid, the camel looked small.

Inc: Before I arrived, they had a serious quarrel.

Cor: Before I reached, they had a serious quarrel.

Inc: The cost of food, clothing and house hold goods have risen considerably.

Cor: The cost of food, clothing and household goods has risen considerably.

Inc: If you work hard, you will success in life.

Cor: If you work hard, you will succeed in life.

Inc: His hairs are grey.

Cor: His hair is grey.

Inc: Gold is brighter and precious than most other metals.

Cor: Gold is brighter and more precious than any other metal.

Inc: The man was arrested by the police who was innocent.

Cor: The man who was arrested by the police is innocent.

Inc: He is suffering from fever for a week.

Cor: He has been suffering from fever for a week.

Inc: Being very tired, the alarm was not heard.

Cor: As he was tired, he could not hear the alarm.

 

 

Inc: Eating out often pacifies her.

Cor: Eating out can often pacify her.

Inc: Playing with fire can get a person into deep water.

Cor: Playing with fire can result in burned fingers.

Inc: A sonnet is when a poem has fourteen lines.

Cor: A sonnet is a poem of fourteen lines.